A new space age has begun. But how do we prevent geopolitical tensions on Earth from spilling over into space? Nayef Al-Rodhan argues that with over 200 launches taking place in 2024, the creation of the United States Space Force, and with a potential, human-manned mission to Mars upcoming, we need a new politics of space for the new space age. Al-Rodhan argues, due to the harshness of space, individual rights in space must trump the rights of nations. While ownership claims, say for Mars, cannot be made purely on the basis of who gets there first.

The idea of space colonisation is no longer confined to the realm of science fiction. Last month, NASA launched a $5.2 billion mission to explore Jupiter’s icy moon, which could have all the ingredients for life as we know it – including water, organics, chemical energy and stability. Advances in rocket technology, astronautics, astrophysics, robotics, and medicine are pushing the vision of humanity evolving into a multiplanetary species closer to reality. Some experts predict that within the next 30 years, humans may begin living in space – while NASA’s Artemis program plans to return humans to the Moon this decade to prepare for a Mars mission as early as the 2030s.

Confronted with escalating risks on Earth – from climate change and resource depletion to asteroid impacts, super-volcanoes, pandemics, and the threat of nuclear conflict – space colonisation offers an exit strategy for the survival of humankind. But what obstacles stand in our way? Can our bodies adapt to living in microgravity environments? Can humans safely conceive and give birth in space? Will space colonies foster global cooperation or turn into the next theatre of geopolitical conflicts? The path to space colonisation is not just about launching rockets – it is about ensuring we can thrive beyond our home planet. That means addressing the profound impacts of space on our biology, psychology, ethics and societal structures. How we protect the health and rights of those who venture into space will be as important as the technologies that get us there.

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In fact, humanity stands at the threshold of a transformative era, driven by disruptive technologies that not only extend our reach into space but also challenge and redefine what it means to be human.

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Anticipating the Future With New Thinking

Some of these outstanding issues can be tackled with what I call Neuro-Techno-Philosophy (NTP). This transdisciplinary approach helps forecast and critically assess how technological innovations will transform human neurobiology and reshape civilisation. And it could provide a guide as to how to deal with the ethical challenges about human existence in space and on Earth, at a time when these challenges are becoming increasingly tangible and time-sensitive. NASA, in collaboration with the Canadian, Japanese and European space agencies, is currently developing the Gateway programme, which aims to construct a human-tended space station in lunar orbit. Meanwhile, various billionaires are pursuing ambitious goals to develop colonies on Mars and Venus and to launch space tourism initiatives. Technological advances are poised to transform some of these ambitious visions into near-future realities by optimising spacecraft design, enhancing mission planning, and enabling autonomous operations in space. In fact, humanity stands at the threshold of a transformative era, driven by disruptive technologies that not only extend our reach into space but also challenge and redefine what it means to be human. Emerging human enhancement technologies hold the potential to radically alter human nature, expanding our capabilities far beyond the limitations set by evolution. Breakthroughs in biotechnology, artificial intelligence, and robotics could soon enable humans to withstand the extreme conditions of space, playing a crucial role in the effort to make humanity a multiplanetary species. SUGGESTED VIEWING To The Edge of Space With Maggie Aderin-Pocock

The Impact of Space on the Human Body

Gravity governs most of the physical, chemical, and biological processes on Earth – but what happens to the human body when gravity is no longer present? When humans venture into microgravity environments, their bodies undergo dramatic changes that highlight how essential gravity has been in shaping human evolution. Microgravity does not merely cause objects to float – it affects nearly every bodily system, from the cardiovascular and musculoskeletal systems to respiratory functions and the central nervous system (CNS). For example, extended exposure to microgravity can lead to visual acuity deficits and structural changes in the eyes. This begs another serious question: can we safeguard our health and well-being in microgravity environments?

Space presents more than just the challenge of microgravity. Space colonists will face a host of stressors, including constant noise, isolation, and cosmic radiation. Together, these various factors can cause symptoms of emotional dysregulation, cognitive dysfunction, and morphological brain changes. Nearly all astronauts report cognitive and operational difficulties related to the central nervous system after returning from space. NASA’s renowned Twins Study revealed that missions lasting up to 12 months can impair cognitive performance for as long as six months post-mission. In addition, there is evidence that exposure to cosmic radiation heightens the risk of developing neurodegenerative diseases and malignancies. The psychological toll of extended stays on the Moon, Mars, and beyond is also significant, as space settlers will be confined to hostile, stressful environments with limited companionship and no immediate options for return to Earth.

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To this end, SpaceBorn United, a company based in the Netherlands, has developed a miniaturised IVF and embryo incubator designed to be launched into space to study how human reproduction might unfold in these extreme environments.

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Can We Make Babies in Space?

As humanity pushes the boundaries of space exploration, a critical yet underexplored question arises: Can we successfully reproduce beyond Earth? The feasibility of space reproduction, whether through natural or artificial methods, involves numerous obstacles. Our understanding of how microgravity, space ionising radiation, and other space environmental factors impact human reproductive functions is still rudimentary. This knowledge gap represents a significant risk. Limited animal studies suggest that while reproduction may be possible in space, there are potential complications at each stage. More research is urgently needed to understand how we can ensure the safety and health of future space-born children and overcome the potential complications that may arise at each stage of reproduction in the space environment.

To this end, SpaceBorn United, a company based in the Netherlands, has developed a miniaturised IVF and embryo incubator designed to be launched into space to study how human reproduction might unfold in these extreme environments. This initiative raises intriguing possibilities, not least: could the future of sustainable space colonies depend on re-engineered IVF technology optimised for extraterrestrial environments? Might artificial wombs represent a solution to the reproductive challenges in space by providing necessary protection? According to CEO Egbert Edelbroek, these inquiries are not just a matter of curiosity but survival: “If you want to be a sustainable species, you want to be a multiplanetary species.”

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Moreover, the potential postflight risks associated with human reproduction in space are increasingly relevant as space tourism grows. For example, male space tourists could contribute genetically altered sperm if involved in conception up to three months post-return. In a similar vein, conception shortly after a spaceflight could involve oocytes exposed to space conditions during development, introducing risks not fully understood yet. Are there long-lasting effects on reproductive cells from space exposure that could pose unforeseen risks to future pregnancies? Before transitioning into a multiplanetary civilisation, we must address these pressing questions.

The Quest for Solutions

What will it take for humans to thrive beyond Earth? Efforts are being made to develop enhancement medications and therapeutic software to support human health in space. Currently, mind-enhancing supplements aimed at improving memory, mood, and energy are being tested. Additionally, therapeutic software is in development to assist astronauts in managing mental health challenges. For example, virtual reality (VR) could provide a solution to sensory deprivation or homesickness, offering a virtual taste of our home planet. Looking ahead, more advanced solutions could revolutionise human space travel and settlement. Researchers are exploring artificial gravity systems, improved propulsion technologies to shorten travel times, and even the construction of underground living facilities to shield settlers from the harsh conditions of the Moon, Mars, and beyond. Transhumanistic approaches, such as enhancing human physiology for space by improving radiation resistance, bone density, and muscle retention, are also being considered.

While some emerging technologies offer promising solutions for space travel, many uncertainties remain. This highlights the need for continued research to better understand the effects of space on the human body and to develop interventions that will allow future space colonists to live, work, and thrive far from Earth. Interestingly, some studies suggest potential neurological benefits from space travel, including improvements in learning and memory. Could space, despite its challenges, unlock hidden human potential? Only further research will reveal the answers.

Space Colonies: Survival Strategy or Future Battlegrounds?

Humanity’s quest to settle the stars is not purely about exploration and discovery, it is in large part motivated by geopolitical interests. The potential establishment of space colonies raises complex security and military concerns. As nations project their strategic interests into outer space, space colonies could easily turn from a survival strategy, a “Plan B”, into a sphere for conflict and geopolitical rivalries.

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The strategic advantages of deploying military assets in space are clear, but they come with heightened risks of conflict both on and beyond Earth.

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While the Outer Space Treaty of 1967 prohibits claims of sovereignty over celestial bodies, it has not kept pace with the rapid evolution of space activities. Initially, space exploration was driven by a multilateral approach centred around the understanding of outer space as a “global commons” for the collective benefit of humankind. This ethos guided the creation of the UN Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (UN COPUOS) in 1958, supported by the United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs (UNOOSA). However, growing economic interests and private sector involvement have shifted the focus from this cooperative ethos to competition, hindering the development of comprehensive rules for resource extraction and security in outer space. Attempts to close regulatory gaps, such as the 2020 Artemis Accords, have lacked broader international consensus, often reflecting U.S. dominance instead. In the absence of enforceable international agreements, space colonies could be exploited for military purposes, including surveillance, missile defence, or even weapons platforms.

What’s at stake? The strategic advantages of deploying military assets in space are clear, but they come with heightened risks of conflict both on and beyond Earth. Critical space-based assets like satellites, crucial for communication, navigation, and defence on Earth, could become targets in these celestial disputes. Moreover, the race to claim valuable extraterrestrial resources could ignite new international tensions. Space colonies could be used for the development of weapons capable of striking from space to Earth, potentially bypassing traditional defences and destabilising international peace. Moreover, the dual-use nature of space technologies complicates the enforcement of treaties and increases the chances of misinterpretations and accidental confrontations.

Currently, our legal frameworks are woefully inadequate for addressing the complexities of potential extraterrestrial warfare or territorial conflicts. This creates a perilous governance vacuum. With this mind, we might be well served to take inspiration from Antarctica, which remains one of the few places in the world where there has never been war, and which prioritises environmental protection and scientific research. This is in large part due to The Antarctic Treaty, chiselled out in 1961 by twelve countries looking to establish bases in the region. The agreement posits that Antarctica is not sovereign territory belonging to any one nation. Instead, it states that the countries active in Antarctica must consult on the uses of the whole continent, with a commitment that it should not become “the scene or object of international discord”. It forbids the establishment of military bases, the dumping of nuclear waste and the explosion of nuclear weapons, as well as the exploitation of minerals (at least until 2048, when the ban will be up for review).

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The Treaty also has a territorial sovereignty regime that has so far managed to keep claims and counterclaims in check. According to the Treaty, “no activities taking place while the present Treaty is in force shall constitute a basis for asserting, supporting or denying a claim to territorial sovereignty in Antarctica.” In short, parties do not renounce any prior claims, nor do they allow any new claims. As a result, a three-nation claim between Argentina, Chile and the United Kingdom has remained peacefully unresolved for more than seventy years. There are useful lessons here for outer space, on how best to cooperate in austere, remote environments as well as how to manage competing territorial claims. However, we should note that while The Antarctic Treaty has helped keep the peace, its restrictive nature has perhaps diminished humanity’s potential to reap the benefits from this virtually uninhabited, ice-covered landmass.

The Governance Challenges of Space Colonisation

As space colonisation missions are projected to increase in both size and frequency in the near future, their roles will vary widely, from mining operations and scientific research stations to extensive settlements aimed at making humans a multi-planetary species. While smaller missions might be efficiently managed by a single mission commander, larger ones with substantial numbers of colonists raise complex governance issues. These issues include, but are not limited to, property and ownership rights, liability for collisions, dispute resolution, and the safeguarding of individual rights and civil liberties.

One of these questions is how to approach citizenship in space. Should colonists remain citizens of their home countries, continuing to be governed by Earth-based laws, or would we need to develop bespoke legal systems tailored to the conditions of extraterrestrial life? Imagine living on the Moon: would the legal framework of your home nation be sufficient in a place where survival requires strict resource management and cooperation? As we expand into space, reimagining fundamental aspects of human society will be one of the greatest governance challenges of our time.

In addition to these social and legal concerns, the increasing involvement of private corporations in space colonisation introduces a new layer of complexity. These corporations, often driven by profit, will play critical roles in building and maintaining space colonies, from mining valuable resources to providing infrastructure. However, allowing corporations to operate in such a powerful capacity without robust oversight raises questions about the protection of colonists’ rights, the enforcement of safety standards, and the potential for exploitation. How do we ensure that these private entities are held accountable? A balance must be struck between encouraging innovation and ensuring that corporate interests do not override the well-being of the colonists or the ethical governance of space settlements.

To address these challenges, it is imperative to establish comprehensive, enforceable global governance frameworks specifically designed for space colonisation. These frameworks must be built on international cooperation and foresight, encompassing everything from property rights to environmental regulations, security protocols, and the protection of human rights in space. Without such measures, the potential for conflict and exploitation will rise, jeopardising the broader benefits that space exploration and colonisation could offer humanity. And without a robust governance framework, space colonies could rapidly transform into the battlefields of tomorrow.

Dignity-Based Governance

To tackle these complex governance challenges, we must move beyond traditional models and explore innovative frameworks that integrate a deeper understanding of technology’s role in shaping human society. One such framework is Neuro-Techno-Philosophy (NTP), which synthesises insights from multiple disciplines to examine how technology can best promote human well-being. This gives rise to the concept of Dignity-Based Governance, a promising solution for governing space colonies.

Dignity-Based Governance focuses on cultivating dignified living conditions by fostering a reason-based, inclusive, and safe society, underpinned by accountable, transparent institutions and a strong focus on human rights, innovation, access to opportunities for personal and professional growth, and socio-economic justice. Research in neuroscience and psychology substantiates the importance of these elements in promoting peaceful human coexistence. A governance system that neglects to provide dignified living conditions for all members of society risks inciting humanity’s baser instincts, leading to social unrest and pervasive aggression. Particularly in the harsh environments of space colonies, where external conditions are more severe than on Earth, adopting Dignity-Based Governance not only enhances survival prospects but also fosters thriving communities.

In practical terms, Dignity-Based Governance in space colonies would involve the creation of policies and institutions that prioritise the well-being and respect for each individual. This might include the development of comprehensive healthcare systems adapted to the unique challenges of space living. Education and continuous learning would be emphasised to equip colonists with the knowledge and skills needed for life in a new environment, fostering a culture of innovation and adaptability. The governance structure for a space colony would need to be built on transparent legal and political frameworks, emphasising participatory decision-making to ensure that every colony member feels represented and valued. Moreover, there would need to be strict oversight of private space corporations to ensure they operate ethically and contribute positively to the colony’s development.

Security would be a top priority, both internally within the colony and in its relations with Earth. Achieving this would require an approach I refer to as Symbiotic Realism. This strategy advocates for multi-sum outcomes that benefit the entire spacefaring community, even if the gains are unevenly distributed. It views security as a shared objective, not a finite resource to be monopolised.

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Thriving beyond Earth involves more than just launching rockets and deploying robots; it requires a deep understanding of the biological and psychological effects of space, as well as addressing complex governance issues unique to extraterrestrial environments.

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How to commonise the cosmos? How to define property rights in what has been terra incognita? Symbiotic Realism can give us a steer in this coming century. Day by day, the 1967 Outer Space Treaty looks increasingly out of touch. Its clause saying space activities should be “carried out for the benefit and in the interests of all countries” has become too vague to be useful. One way to achieve multi-sum gains would be to extend the idea of safety zones to space colonies. These zones would designate specific areas where entities can conduct activities such as resource extraction, research, or infrastructure development without external interference. This approach would ensure that multiple stakeholders can operate in close proximity while minimising conflict. By promoting peaceful coexistence, safety zones would help balance the interests of different parties and prevent any single entity from monopolising resources or territory.

To further support social cohesion and avoid conflict, economic systems within the colony would be designed to reduce disparities in wealth and power. Measures such as progressive taxation, universal basic services, and equitable resource distribution would ensure that all residents have access to essential needs like food, water, and energy. As space technology advances and introduces enhanced humans or autonomous machines, the governance framework would need to evolve accordingly. New legal statuses and rights for these entities must be established, with clear guidelines for interactions and conflict resolution. Specialised arbitration systems could ensure that the cognitive and moral capacities of all parties are considered fairly, maintaining justice and social order in the colony.

Ultimately, Dignity-Based Governance aims to create a space colony where every individual can lead a dignified life, contributing to a resilient and cohesive community. This approach paves the way for successful and sustainable human settlement beyond Earth.

Conclusion

Space colonisation presents an unprecedented opportunity for humanity to safeguard our species and redefine our place in the universe. However, it also poses profound challenges that extend far beyond the technological feats required to reach other planets. Thriving beyond Earth involves more than just launching rockets and deploying robots; it requires a deep understanding of the biological and psychological effects of space, as well as addressing complex governance issues unique to extraterrestrial environments. By adopting innovative ethical frameworks we can ensure that space colonisation becomes not just a technological feat, but also a groundwork for thriving extraterrestrial communities, heralding a new era of sustainable growth for humanity.